Keywords
higher education
distance learning
mental health
psychological effects
Covid-19
distance learning
mental health
psychological effects
Covid-19
How to Cite
Ojeda-Núñez, J. A. (2025). Perception of psychological risk in Mexican university students during the Covid-19 pandemic: a comparison by sex and type of institution. Revista Internacional De Educación Emocional Y Bienestar, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.48102/rieeb.2025.5.1.e141
Abstract
The aim of this research is to analyze the perception of psychological risk in undergraduate students in Mexico during the period of health confinement, making comparisons by sex and type of university. To this end, a questionnaire was administered through a Google Forms survey to 38,846 students, which evaluated levels of continuous worry, uneasiness, sadness, discouragement about the future, stress, and sleep problems. The results revealed high levels of these indicators; likewise, women reported a higher degree of risk than their male counterparts, and no differences were observed in risk perception by type of university. These findings can contribute significantly to the design and orientation of public policies in the field of higher education. In particular, the need to implement strategies that promote the mental health of university students is highlighted, incorporating approaches that are gender-sensitive and adapted to the type of educational institution.
References
Abdulghani, H. M., Sattar, K., Ahmad, T., y Akram, A. (2020). Association of Covid-19 pandemic with undergraduate medical students’ perceived stress and coping. Psychology Research and Behavior Management. 13, 871-881. https://doi.org/10.2147/prbm.S276938
Ahmed, M. Z., Ahmed, O., Aibao, Z., Hanbin, S., Siyu, L., y Ahmad, A. (2020). Epidemic of COVID-19 in China and associated psychological problems. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 51, 102092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ajp.2020.102092
Amador, O. A., Trejos-Gil, C. A., Castro-Escobar, H. Y., y Angulo, E. J. (2021). Psicoterapia online en tiempos de pandemia: Intervención cognitivo-conductual en pacientes colombianos con depresión. Revista de Ciencias Sociales, XXVII (Esp. 4), 49-60.
Beck, A., y Alford, B. (2009). Depression: Causes and treatment. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Beck, A., y Clark, D. (1988). Anxiety and depression: An information processing perspective. Anxiety Research, 1(1), 23-36.
Bisquerra, R. (2003). Educación emocional y competencias básicas para la vida. Revista de Investigación Educativa, 21(1), 7-43.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005). Ecological systems theory. Sage Publications Ltd. Casagrande, M., Favieri, F., Tambelli, R., y Forte, G. (2020). The enemy who sealed the world: effects quarantine due to the Covid-19 on sleep quality, anxiety, and psychological distress in the Italian population. Sleep Medicine, 75, 12-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2020.05.011
CEPAL, UNESCO (2020). La educación en tiempos de la pandemia de Covid-19. Revista Latinoamericana de Educación Comparada, 11(18), 250-270.
De Agüero, A., Benavides, M. A., Rendón, J., Pompa, M., Hernández-Romo, A. K., Martínez-Hernández, A. M., y Sánchez-Mendiola, M. (2021). Los retos educativos durante la pandemia de Covid-19: segunda encuesta a profesoras y profesores de la UNAM. Revista Digital Universitaria, 22(5). http://doi.org/10.22201/cuaieed.16076079e.2021.22.5.13
De la Fuente, J., Pachón-Basallo, M., Santos, F. H., Peralta-Sánchez, F. J., González-Torres, M. C., Artuch-Garde, R., Paoloni, P. V., y Gaetha, M. L. (2021). How has the Covid-19 crisis affected the academic stress of university students? The role of teachers and students. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 626340. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.626340
Escobar, F., Florez, A. M., Estrada, M. J., y Agudelo, A. (2022). Panorama de las intervenciones psicológicas virtuales en Hispanoamérica y España antes de la pandemia Covid-19. Revisión documental. Revista Virtual Universidad Católica del Norte, (67), 217-248. https://doi.org/10.35575/ rvucn.n67a9
Gaeta, M. L., Gaeta, L., y Rodríguez, M. S. (2021). The impact of Covid-19 home confinement on mexican university students: emotions, coping strategies, and self-regulated learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1323. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.642823
García-González, A., y Rodriguez-Zapata, D. (2021). Del salón al aula virtual: Las dificultades tecnológicas, económicas y de salud mental que afrontan los universitarios para el desarrollo de la educación remota en el marco de la pandemia del Covid-19. Cultura Educación Sociedad, 12(2), 205-222. https://doi.org/10.17981/cultedusoc.12.2.2021.12
González, L. (2020). Estrés académico en estudiantes universitarios asociado a la pandemia por Covid-19. Espacio I+D, Innovación Más Desarrollo, 9(25). https://doi.org/10.31644/IMASD.25.2020.a10
Haikalis, M., Doucette, H., Meisel, M. K., Birch, K., y Barnett, N. P. (2022). Changes in College Student Anxiety and Depression from Pre-to Du- ring-Covid-19: Perceived Stress, Academic Challenges, Loneliness, and Positive Perceptions. Emerging Adulthood, 10(2), 534-545. https://doi. org/10.1177/21676968211058516
Huang, Y., y Zhao, N. (2020). Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms and sleep quality during Covid-19 outbreak in China: a web-based cross-sectional survey. Psychiatry Research, 288, 112954. https://doi.or- g/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112954
Huremovi?, D. (2019). Psychiatry of pandemics: a mental health response to infection outbreak. Springer.
Husky, M., Kovess-Masfety, V., y Swendsen, J. D. (2020). Stress and anxiety among university students in France during Covid-19 mandatory confinement. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 102, 152191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. comppsych.2020.152191
INEGI (2021). Resultados de la encuesta para la medición del impacto Covid-19 en la educación (ECOVID_ED). Comunicado de prensa número 185/21. INEGI.
Jahrami, H. A., Alhaj, O. A., Humood, A. M., Alenezi, A. F., Fekih-Romdha- ne, F., AlRasheed, M. M., Saif, Z. Q., Bragazzi, N. L., Pandi-Perumal, S. R., BaHammam, A. S., y Vitiello, M. V. (2022). Sleep Disturbances During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review, Meta-analysis, and Meta-regression. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 62, 101591. https://doi.or- g/10.1016/j.smrv.2022.101591
Jeldes, F. G., Ortiz, R. E., Mansilla, K. Y., y Guiñez, N. A. (2023). Factores de adaptación a la enseñanza remota de emergencia: diferencias en las percepciones de los estudiantes universitarios en tiempos de Covid-19. Formación Universitaria, 16(2), 61-72. https://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-50062023000200061
Karantonis, A., y Sireci, S. G. (2006). The Bookmark Standard?Setting Method: A Literature Review. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 25(1), 4-12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3992.2006.00047.x
Killgore, W. D. (2010). Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Cognition. Progress in Brain Research, 185, 105-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53702-7.00007-5
Kumar, A., Singh, R., Kaur, J., Pandey, S., Sharma, V., Thakur, L., Sati, S., Mani, S., Asthana, S., Sharma, T. K., Chaudhuri, S., Bhattacharyya, S., y Kumar, N. (2021). Wuhan to World: The Covid-19 Pandemic. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 11, 596201. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fcimb.2021.596201
Lee, J., Jeong, H. J., y Kim, S. (2021). Stress, Anxiety, and Depression among Undergraduate Students During the Covid-19 Pandemic and their Use of Mental Health Services. Innovative Higher Education, 46, 519-538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-021-09552-y
Marco-Ahulló, A., Villarrasa-Sapiña, I., y Monfort-Torres, G. (2022). Estudio descriptivo sobre las diferencias de género en el estrés académico derivado del contexto Covid-19 en población universitaria española. Retos, 43, 845–851. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v43i0.88968
Martínez, R. J., González, L. P., Roca-Chiapas, J. M., y Hernández-González, M. (2021). Psychological Distress of Covid-19 Pandemic and Associated Psychosocial Factors among Mexican Students: An Exploratory Study. Psychology in the Schools, 58, 1844-1857. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22570
McGonagle, K. A., y Kessler, R. C. (1990). Chronic Stress, Acute Stress, and Depressive Symptoms. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(5), 681-706. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00931237
Medina-Gual, L., Chao-Rebolledo, C., Garduño-Teliz, E., González-Videgaray, M. C., Baptista-Lucio, M. P., Montes-Pacheco, L. C., Medina-Velázquez, L., Rivera-Navarro, M. A., Covarrubias-Santiago, C. A., Sánchez-Rojas, L. D., Ojeda-Núñez, J. A., Monereo-Font, C., Martínez-García, A., Salazar-Siqueiros, A. B., Verdugo-Rojas, W., M., Jiménez-Williams, A., G., y Acosta-García, H. M. (2021). Educar en contingencia durante la Covid-19 en México. Editorial SM.
Medina-Gual, L., Chao-Rebolledo, C., Garduño-Teliz, E., Baptista-Lucio, P., González-Videgaray, M., Covarrubias-Santiago, C. A., Rivera-Navarro, M. A., Medina-Velázquez, L., Montes-Pacheco, L. C., Sánchez-Rojas, L. D., y Ojeda-Núñez, J. A. (2021). El impacto de la pandemia en la educación media superior mexicana: un análisis desde lo pedagógico, psico- lógico y tecnológico. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación, 86, 125-146. https://doi.org/10.35362/rie8624356
Mei, S., Yu, J., He, B., y Li, J. (2011). Investigation and Psychological Analysis of College Students facing Public Health Emergency in one College of Jilin. Med. Soc, 24, 84-86.
Moghanibashi, A. (2020). Assessing the Anxiety Level of Iranian General Population during Covid-19 outbreak. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 51, 102076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102076
Morin, C., y Carrier, J. (2021). The Acute Effects of the Covid-19 Pandemic on Insomnia and Psychological Symptoms. Sleep Medicine, 77, 346. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2020.06.005
Muvdi, Y., Malvaceda, E., Barreto, M., Madero, K., Mendoza, X., y Bohórquez, C. (2021). Estrés percibido en estudiantes de enfermería durante el confinamiento obligatorio por Covid-19. Revista Cuidarte, 12(2). https://doi. org/10.15649/cuidarte.1330
Ojeda-García, A., González-Ruiz, G. A., Chao-Rebolledo, C., Castaños-Cervantes, S., y Ojeda-Nuñez, J. A. (2023). Soy CO-BYD: Proposal for an App to Cope with the Emotional Impact of Confinement During the Co-vid-19 Pandemic in Mexico. En N. Portillo, M. L. Morgan, y M. Gallegos (eds.), Psychology and Covid-19 in the Americas. Springer. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-031-38627-5_13
Ortega, D., Rodríguez, J., y Mateos, A. (2021). Educación Superior y la Covid-19: Adaptación Metodológica y Evaluación Online en dos Universidades de Barcelona. Revista Digital de Investigación en Docencia Universitaria, 15(1), e1275. https://doi.org/10.19083/ridu.2021.1275
Ortega-Ceballos, P. A., Terrazas-Meraz, M. A., Zuñiga-Hernández, O. Y., y Macías-Carrillo, C. M. (2022). Estrés percibido en estudiantes universitarios durante la pandemia por Covid-19. Revista ConCiencia EPG, 7(2), 68-88. https://doi.org/10.32654/CONCIENCIAEPG.7-2.5
Peréz-Pérez, M., Fernández-Sánchez, H., Enríquez-Hernández, C. B., López-Orozco, G., Ortiz-Vargas, I., y Gómez-Calles, T. J. (2021). Estrés, ansiedad, depresión y apoyo familiar en universitarios mexicanos durante la pandemia de Covid-19. Revista Salud Uninorte, 37(3), 553-568. https://doi.org/10.14482/sun.37.3.616.98
Riboldi, I., Cavaleri, D., Calabrese, A., Capogrosso, C. A., Piacenti, S., Bartoli, F., Crocamo, C., y Carrà, G. (2023). Digital Mental Health Interventions for Anxiety and Depressive Symptoms in University Students during the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental, 16, 47-58. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.rpsm.2022.04.005
Sanz, I., Doncel, L. M., y Sainz, J. (2022). La pandemia y el bienestar emocional de los alumnos. Razón y Fe, 285(1455), 41-54. https://doi.org/10.14422/ ryf.vol285.i1455.y2022.002
Secretaría de Educación Pública (2020, 22 de mayo). Programa "Aprende en Casa”. SEP. https://www.gob.mx/consejonacionalcai/documentos/pro- grama-aprende-en-casa
Selye, H. (1976). Forty Years of Stress Research: Principal Remaining Problems and Misconceptions. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 115(1), 53.
Solari, G., Rivera, M., Álvarez, M., Velasco, A., Yaitul, P., Gómez, P., Stevens-Anilio, J., Sánchez-Soto, M., y Rojas, M. (2022). Prevalencia del estrés académico en estudiantes de Kinesiología durante el periodo de pandemia de Covid-19, 2021. Revista de la Fundación Educación Médica, 25(5), 197-203. https://dx.doi.org/10.33588/fem.255.1227
Strasser, M. A., Sumner, P. J., y Meyer, D. (2022). Covid-19 News Consumption and Distress in Young People: A Systematic Review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 300, 481-491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.01.007
Taylor, B. K., Fung, M. H., Frenzel, M. R., Johnson, H. J., Willett, M. P., Badura-Brack, A. S., White, S. F., y Wilson, T. W. (2022). Increases in Circulating Cortisol During the Covid-19 Pandemic are Associated with Changes in Perceived Positive and Negative Affect among Adolescents. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 50, 1543–1555. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10802-022-00967-5
Usher, K., Bhullar, N., Durkin, J., Gyamfi, N., y Jackson, D. (2020). Family Violence and Covid-19: Increased Vulnerability and Reduced Options for Support. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 29(4), 549-552. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12735
Velázquez, L., Valenzuela, C. J., y Murillo, F. (2020). Pandemia Covid-19: repercusiones en la educación universitaria. Odontología Sanmarquina, 23(2), 203-205. https://doi.org/10.15381/os.v23i2.17766
Wang, C., Wen, W., Zhang, H., Ni, J., Jiang, J., Cheng, Y., Zhou, M., Ye, L., Feng, Z., Ge, Z., Luo, H., Wanga, M., Zhang, X., y Liu, W. (2021). Anxiety, Depression, and Stress Prevalence among College Students during the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Journal of American College Health, 71(7), 2123-2130. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2021.1960849
Wang, C., y Zhao, H. (2020). The Impact of Covid-19 on Anxiety in Chinese University Students. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1168. https://doi. org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01168
Zapata-Ospina, J. P., Patiño-Lugo, D. F., Vélez, C. M., Campos-Ortiz, S., Madrid-Martínez, P., Pemberthy-Quintero, S., Pérez-Gutiérrez, A. M., Ramírez-Pérez, P. A., y Vélez-Marín, V. M. (2021). Intervenciones para la salud mental de estudiantes universitarios durante la pandemia por Covid-19: una síntesis crítica de la literatura. Revista Colombiana de Psi- quiatría, 50(3), 199-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcp.2021.04.007
Zhang, C., Zeng, P., Tan, J., Sun, S., Zhao, M., Cui, J., Zhang, G., Jia, J., y Liu, D. (2021). Relationship of Problematic Smartphone Use, Sleep Quality, and Daytime Fatigue among Quarantined Medical Students During the Covid-19 Pandemic. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 755059. https://doi. org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.755059
Zhang, Y., Bao, X., Yan, J., Miao, H., y Guo, C. (2021) Anxiety and Depression in Chinese Students During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Public Health, 9, 697642. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpu- bh.2021.697642
Zieky, M., Perie, M., y Livingston, S. (2006). A Primer on Setting Cut Scores on Tests of Educational Achievement. Educational Testing Service, 320.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2025 Revista Internacional de Educación Emocional y Bienestar
